Initially, Muslims referred to their faith as "the Arab religion" al-din al-'arab , and did not attempt to win converts. Though early Islam tried to transcend both class and racial distinctions, this goal was abandoned once the conquest of territories beyond the peninsula began in earnest.
For example, the tax policy of 'Umar for the Christians of Syria clearly states this Muslim ruler's attitude towards his non-Muslim subjects:. This situation created a strong motivation for non-Muslims to convert to Islam, particularly among those conquered who previously held elite economic, social and political positions, since becoming Muslim allowed them to rejoin the ruling group.
Furthermore, the Arabs recognized a talent for administration among those they conquered. They adopted the Sassanian model for their Islamic governments and recruited local peoples to serve as government ministers, the majority of which were Sassanian Persians. As government officials, it was seemly for them to convert to Islam, though afterwards they began to press for the same rights as Arab Muslims.
This development led to the adoption of non-Arab converts as mawla "clients" by Arab Muslims, which made the mawla an honorary clan member of sorts. It was not long until the mawalis outnumbered the Arab Muslims, and when the two groups mingled, they formed a new body of religious and political elite, as well as a new middle class of merchants, artisans, teachers and scholars.
The Malian king Mansa Musa r. Islam brought to Africa the art of writing and new techniques of weighting. The city of Timbuktu, for instance, flourished as a commercial and intellectual center, seemingly undisturbed by various upheavals.
Timbuktu began as a Tuareg settlement, was soon integrated into the Mali empire , then was reclaimed by the Tuareg, and finally incorporated into the Songhai empire. In the sixteenth century, the majority of Muslim scholars in Timbuktu were of Sudanese origin. On the other hand, in many cases conversion for sub-Saharan Africans was probably a way to protect themselves against being sold into slavery, a flourishing trade between Lake Chad and the Mediterranean.
For their rulers, who were not active proselytizers, conversion remained somewhat formal, a gesture perhaps aimed at gaining political support from the Arabs and facilitating commercial relationships. These amulets are featured in the design of many traditional African artifacts. Islam also reinforced the African fondness for geometric design and the repetition of patterns in decorating the surface of textiles and crafted objects.
Local weaving may have been transformed with the importation of North African weaving techniques. Islam has also often existed side by side with representational traditions such as masquerading. The Prophet once said, "If someone among you sees wrong he must right it by his hand if he can deed, conduct, action.
If he cannot, then by his tongue speak up, verbally oppose ; if he cannot, then by his gaze silent expression of disapproval ; and if he cannot, then in his heart. The last is the minimum expression of his conviction faith, courage. A view inside the ninth-century Karaouine Mosque, Fez, Morocco.
By no means shall ye attain righteousness unless ye give freely of that which ye love; and whatever ye give, of a truth God knoweth it well. Qur'an The preservation of a social order depends on each and every member of that society freely adhering to the same moral principles and practices. Islam, founded on individual and collective morality and responsibility, introduced a social revolution in the context in which it was first revealed.
Collective morality is expressed in the Qur'an in such terms as equality, justice, fairness, brotherhood, mercy, compassion, solidarity, and freedom of choice. Leaders are responsible for the application of these principles and are accountable to God and man for their administration. It is reported that a man went to Umar, the second khalifa, to talk to him. It was nighttime, and a candle burned on Umar's desk. Umar asked the man if what he wanted to discuss was personal.
The man said that it was, and Umar extinguished the candle so as not burn public funds for a private purpose. Leaders in Islam, whether heads of state or heads of family or private enterprise, have a higher burden or responsibility than others. There is a relation in Islam between individual responsibility and the rights and privileges derived from membership in the community.
Individual obligations must be met before one can claim a portion from the community of which he is part. Each member of a society must fulfill his own obligations and rely on others to fulfill theirs before that society can acquire the necessary reservoir of social rights and privileges which can then be shared by all. The notions of brotherhood and solidarity not only impose upon the community the duty to care for' its members, but also require each person to use his initiative to carry out individual and social responsibilities according to his ability.
And to be firm and patient, in pain or suffering and adversity, And throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God-fearing. The equality of all Muslims is emphasized repeatedly throughout the Qur'an. It is because of that concept that Islam under the Sunni tradition does not have an ordained clergy.
There is a direct relationship between every man and his Creator, and there can be no intermediary. This particular closeness between the individual and God is paramount in belief as well as in practice. It is frequently argued that Islam is not a religion that provides for full equity among Muslims.
Indeed, because Islam makes distinctions between men and women; not all rights and privileges available to men are available to women. For example, a male Muslim inherits twice the share of the female, but then a male relative has the financial responsibility to care for a needy female relative. Also, a male Muslim has the right to unilaterally divorce his wife, while she can only divorce her husband through a judge's determination. Custody of children from a divorce is given the mother, boys till age 9 and girls till age Thereafter custody reverts to the father, provided that he is fit.
However, the fact that there is not absolute parity in all rights and privileges does not mean that women do not share an overall equality with men.
It must also be noted that certain social practices in some Muslim countries are not required by Islam, but have simply evolved in the course of time as a result of indigenous cultural factors.
Islam differentiates between Muslims and non-Muslims and between the "People of the Book" dhimmi and others. Only Muslims have the right to elect the khalifa. In judicial matters the oath of the Muslim prevails over that of the non-Muslim.
There are therefore some differences between males and females in Islam, between Muslims and Dhimmis, and Muslims and non-Dhimmis. One of almost mosques on the Tunisian island of Jerba. These glimmering, whitewashed structures dominate the landscape, their colors shift with the changing light, and their flights of architectural fantasy seem to come in an infinite variety.
Individual Responsibility. The search for justice is one of the continuing quests of humankind. It is the quest that is prescribed by the Qur'an for every Muslim.
Social and individual justice are evolving concepts which depend largely upon a variety of external considerations. Above all, Islam seeks to inculcate within every Muslim the need to seek justice and to apply it to himself as well as to others.
Because Muslims believe that God is the beginning and the end of everything, all is preordained by Qadar divine will. Qadar does not imply inaction, but, rather, acceptance. It requires the strength to change what can be changed and the fortitude to accept what cannot. Individual responsibility is a cornerstone of Islam. Every Muslim is accountable to his Creator for what he himself does or fails to do—as well as for others for whom he may be accountable—and for things that he has control over.
As in Western legal codes, individual responsibility is predicated on the intent and motive of the actor in light of his ability to do good and to avoid evil or harm to others. Thus Islam believes in free will, and to the extent that this exists a person is responsible for its exercise in the framework of Islamic morality.
But the relativity of human justice is not to be confused with the absoluteness of divine justice whose application every Muslim expects without fail on judgment day.
Because of the Muslim's belief in accountability in the hereafter, his oath is valid evidence in any judicial or extra-judicial process.
Serve God, and join not any partners with Him; and do good—To parents, orphans, those in need, neighbours who are near, neighbours who are strangers; the companion by your side, the way-farer ye meet , and what your right hands possess: For God loveth not the arrogant, the vainglorious;— Qur'an A Muslim is accountable for what he does and what he fails to do in accordance with not only the letter but also the spirit of the law.
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